[Coral-List] Economic Valuation and market based conservation

Nim, Carl J. Mr. nimcj at muohio.edu
Mon Aug 15 10:42:32 EDT 2011


Greetings Coral-List Readers,

I agree with Quenton about the numerous political initiatives and economic activities (such as tourism) that are not paid equal attention to in relation to other aforementioned coral reef related topics (e.g. agriculture, offshore energy, fisheries, MPAs), but I would also like to point out that the sub-discipline of political ecology is one area where these relationships have been investigated.

While political ecology is certainly not the most recognized area of research, there are numerous discussion threads from Coral-List where I have thought that political ecology would be a great theoretical basis for scientific inquiry to the the environmental problem mentioned. Political ecology directly addresses the political and economic powers that influence environmental problems and has been used by more well-known researchers, such as Susan Stonich, in tropical marine settings to address tourism related issues. In my personal opinion political ecology provides an appropriate and effective means of understanding the political and economic forces affecting coral reef ecosystems throughout the world and I would encourage researchers unfamiliar with this sub-discipline to see what they come up with on an ISI Web of Science or Google search. It is my hope that this area of research gains more attention and can provide information that can enable us to make wiser decisions in relation to our natural resource decisions.

Hope my polyp in a reef of information is useful to some!

Carl



Carl Nim
Graduate Student
Institute of Environmental Sciences
Miami University
Oxford, Ohio
nimcj at muohio.edu

"It is not necessary to change.  Survival is not mandatory."
W. Edwards Deming
________________________________________
From: coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.noaa.gov [coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.noaa.gov] On Behalf Of Quenton Dokken [qdokken at gulfmex.org]
Sent: Sunday, August 14, 2011 18:57
To: coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
Cc: Yoskowitz, David; 'Bruce Tackett'; ddavis77127 at comcast.net
Subject: Re: [Coral-List] Economic Valuation and market based conservation

Good Day All,

Discussion on the impacts of tourism is critical and perhaps long overdue.  In 2009 (or was it 2010?) the NOAA Coral Reef Task Force met in St. Thomas, VI in December.  This was a well attended meeting with strong representation from government and science.  It was held in a upper scale hotel located on the shore.  Outside the picture windows lining one entire side of the meeting room we could see the next five star hotel being built.  As it rained we could see dense sediment plums spreading out from the construction site across the bay.  As we listened to scientists call for more research funding I commented to my friend, a VI government employee, that what we really needed was to stop the infrastructure development activities that were degrading the bays such as was plainly visible not more than 100 feet from where we were sitting.  My friend responded, "Oh no, you cannot say that.  The Governor would not like it because it could have a negative effect on tourism development."  And, therein lies the conundrum we face.  In Ecology 101 we learned the concept of "maximum holding capacity."  When it comes to tourism development the truth and wisdom of this maxim is null and void.

We vigorously debate the impacts of agriculture, offshore energy, fisheries, etc.  But do we give equal attention to tourism which, arguably, could be the most environmentally and economically impactful of all the industries? In all coastal areas tourism is a primary source of employment and business development, and its environmental impacts occur 24/7 every day of every year of every decade.... These impacts are not acute or plainly visible.  They are chronic and slow to express themselves; as such they do not get front page attention.  And, typically the community leaders, media, Chamber of Commerce, Tourism Board, banks, business owners, and land owners are the promoters of "more" tourism; often under guise of "eco" tourism.

We can discuss and manage offshore activities for evermore (CZM, CMSP, etc), but if we do not manage the activities above the high tide line just as stringently we will not achieve sustainability of environment, economy, or culture.  We need tourism just as we need robust agriculture, fisheries, and energy industries.  But, we do need to be paying more attention to the impacts of the tourism industry and devising strategies to minimize and when possible eliminate these impacts.  Not maximum, but OPTIMUM holding capacity needs to be the foundation of every discussion.  I am sympathetic to the plight of the native populations who only get the crumbs of the wealth generated by this industry.  I would also be the last to tell a man struggling to feed his family that he could not eat the last dodo bird.  But we must find solutions; otherwise the idea of sustainability will never be more than a concept.

Quenton


Dr. Quenton Dokken, President/CEO
www.gulfmex.org

Mailing: PMB 51 5403 Everhart Rd.
                  Corpus Christi, TX 78411

Physical: 3833 South Staples Suite S214
                  Corpus Christi, TX 78411

O: 361-882-3939   F: 361-882-1262   C: 361-442-6064

-----Original Message-----
From: coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.noaa.gov [mailto:coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.noaa.gov] On Behalf Of Phil Dustan
Sent: Friday, August 12, 2011 1:04 PM
To: Bill Allison
Cc: Eugene Shinn; coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
Subject: Re: [Coral-List] Economic Valuation and market based conservation

However,
    Right now one of the major rivers in that region of Peru, Rio de
Madre de Dios, is being plundered by thousands of people searching for
gold worth over 1700usd/gram. They use dredges, fire hoses, and shovels.
For every gram of gold there are one to two grams of mercury released
into the environment (estimated at 40 tons per year or more!).  Miners
have rights to the minerals that trump conversation easements on the
surface of the land.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/8284407/Gold-rush-in-the-Amazon.html
http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0018875#s1

 This is a place where there is still intact rainforest with  jaguars,
pumas, ocelots, 13 species of monkeys, over 600 bird species, etc that
are free ranging. But gold is more valuable to the thousands who have
flocked there from urban areas.
        So once again, even though nature may have a greater worth,
commerce is destroying what little is left of intact nature.
                Phil


Bill Allison wrote:
> Catching up on PLoS One I came across this article relevant to this
> discussion. In my experience eco-tourism is often less eco and more tourism
> in part because the marine environment is harder to govern, but the article
> provides some empirically grounded food for thought.
>
> Kirkby, C. A., R. Giudice-Granados, et al. (2010). "The Market Triumph of
> Ecotourism: An Economic Investigation of the Private and Social Benefits of
> Competing Land Uses in the Peruvian Amazon." PLoS ONE 5(9): e13015.
>     Annual revenue flow to developing countries for ecotourism (or
> nature-based tourism) could be as large as US$ 1210×1012, providing an
> enormous financial incentive against habitat loss and exploitation. However,
> is ecotourism the most privately and/or socially valuable use of rainforest
> land? The question is rarely answered because the relevant data, estimates
> of profits and fixed costs, are rarely available. We present a social
> cost-benefit analysis of land use in an ecotourism cluster in the Tambopata
> region of Amazonian Peru. The net present value of ecotourism-controlled
> land is given by the producer surplus (profits plus fixed costs of
> ecotourism lodges): US$ 1,158 ha−1, which is higher than all currently
> practiced alternatives, including unsustainable logging, ranching, and
> agriculture. To our knowledge, this is the first sector-wide study of
> profitability and producer surplus in a developing-country ecotourism sector
> and the first to compare against equivalent measures for a spectrum of
> alternative uses. We also find that ecotourism-controlled land sequesters
> between 5.3 to 8.7 million tons of above-ground carbon, which is equivalent
> to between 3000–5000 years of carbon emissions from the domestic component
> of air and surface travel between the gateway city of Cusco and the lodges,
> at 2005 emission rates. Ecotourism in Tambopata has successfully monetized
> the hedonic value of wild nature in Amazonian Peru, and justifies the
> maintenance of intact rainforest over all alternative uses on narrow
> economic grounds alone.
>
> http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0013015
>
>
>
>
> On Thu, Aug 11, 2011 at 1:55 PM, Szmant, Alina <szmanta at uncw.edu> wrote:
>
>
>> Hi Gene:
>>
>> Nice summary of the old times and history of the Keys.  I remember the
>> Overseas Highway back in the 1950s when my family drove to Key West to take
>> the ferry to Havana.  There were a few road-side stands with clumps of
>> bleached Acropora cervicornis (no I did know the scientific name back then
>> but I can clearly see the corals in my mind) and a few small A. palmata.
>>  But I was most impressed as a child by the dried coconuts made into pirate
>> faces!
>>
>> The first time I went diving in Keys was 1977 and in the Bahamas (Nassau)
>> 1971, and coming from living and working in La Parguera PR, where there were
>> still lots of live coral (70+ % live cover) and fishes, and hardly any algae
>> except in grassbeds and mangroe lagoons, I confess I was not impressed by
>> what I saw, and attributed the differences to the marginal latitude and
>> colder winters.  In PR we didn't start seeeing major loss of coral until
>> after the 1987 bleaching events, and I was impressed with the amount of dead
>> coral along the Andros reef line facing crystal clear Tongue of the Ocean,
>> including unihabited Jolters Keys, in 1986-1987.  Mid 80's I had a chance to
>> explore other parts of the Bahamas along Eleuthera, and was also impressed
>> by high rates of bioerosion and partial mortality even in areas of minimal
>> human presence.  My first work in the Florida Keys was on Carysfort in 1982
>> when the reef was covered by dense thickets of A cervicornis and palmata ...
>>  We had a re
>>  al cold winter December of 1983, and when I went back to look for the
>> corals, spring of 1984, they weren't there.
>>
>> While I am not discounting the potential negative influence of Keys
>> development on the state of corals of the Florida Keys, it appears to me
>> that bigger/more broadscale factors have been at work.  Could be Sahara dust
>> was bringing in harmful substances including pathogens in the early 1980s,
>> but a lot of work on that angle has not produced any conclusive evidence
>> that I am aware of.  I still put my last 10 chips on the global warming
>> square as being the factor that tipped the cart on top of overfishing and
>> local sedimentation/water quality issues.  Unfortuneately, the interest in
>> getting a better handle on coral reproduction and recruitment came late in
>> the game once there wasn't much coral recruitment occuring on many reefs,
>> and so now we can't really interpret what we measure as present rates with
>> century back patterns.  We do know that places like Curacao and Bonaire have
>> much higher densities of juvenile corals that places like PR and FL, but now
>> these southern locations
>>  are going down-hill real fast as they have also been hit by severe
>> bleaching this past year.  Thus we are losing our chance for comparative
>> ecology with the loss of these until recently, fairly rich coral
>> populations.
>>
>> Now that I too am retired, it will be up to the younger scientists to see
>> if they can figure all of this out.  Back in 1984, as I was applying for a
>> different position with the University of Miami, I was asked by a
>> terrestrial type within the Biology Dept., who had little regard for marine
>> biology, and even less for anyone studying corals and coral reefs (we were
>> obviously just sun-and-fun types), what I would work on if all the corals
>> died:  My reply was that maybe that would at last shake loose some research
>> funds!  It's unfortunate that both of these events came to pass, but the
>> fudning came to late for coral reef ecologists to get enough work done on
>> reefs before we were already studying sick systems (at least for much of the
>> Caribbean)..
>>
>> So much we have learned, so much more to learn, and not so much time to
>> learn it in!
>>
>> Best,
>>
>> Alina
>>
>> P.S.  I agree with you that the social valuation tack has not and will not
>> work, because the problem is bigger than just coral reefs, and there at 7
>> Billion contributors to the problem (and growing fast)
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> **********************************************
>> Dr. Alina M. Szmant
>> Professor of Marine Biology
>> Coral Reef Research Program, Center for Marine Science
>> University of North Carolina Wilmington
>> 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane
>> Wilmington NC 28409
>> Tel:  (910)962-2362; fax: (910)962-2410;  cell:  (910)200-3913
>> http://people.uncw.edu/szmanta
>> **********************************************
>> ________________________________________
>> From: coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.noaa.gov[coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.
>> .noaa.gov] On Behalf Of Eugene Shinn [eshinn at marine.usf.edu]
>> Sent: Wednesday, August 10, 2011 2:53 PM
>> To: coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
>> Subject: [Coral-List] Economic Valuation and market  based conservation
>>
>> Dear Listers,
>>      My criticism of economic schemes for saving corals and calling
>> it "social engineering" apparently raised blood pressures and
>> stimulated many thoughtful discussions. I can't respond to postings
>> about many reef areas mentioned in the posts, but Rudy's posting
>> touches on several events/changes in the Florida Keys that I know
>> very well.
>>      I was born in Key West and began diving in the Keys in 1950.
>> There are not many of us left. Because of age and location, I
>> observed many historical and sociological changes leading to the
>> present. Even though this is a rather long read, here is some history
>> as seen through cynical eyes. Keys history suggests possible ways
>> Keys history affected coral growth. One must first realize that the
>> Florida Keys have been a magnet for people running away from
>> something since the first pirates and later loyalists from the
>> Bahamas. Key West for most of its history was like a foreign country
>> more closely allied to Cuba than the US and people running from
>> something are still arriving. First some diving and social history.
>>      When I began driving from Miami to go diving in the early 1950s,
>> the only gas station between Homestead and Key West was in Marathon.
>> The Last Chance Bar and Grill off US 1 in Homestead was almost the
>> last chance. The Overseas Liquor store in Marathon was the other one.
>> This was a time  when bay bottom mud was being pumped up to create
>> Duck Key and Key Colony Village, and other Keys were being enlarged
>> and cut with canals.
>>       There were about 20 hardcore divers spear fishing in the Keys
>> at that time. We pretty much knew each other because we often met at
>> the same Miami fish markets and restaurants selling our fish.
>> AAU-sponsored spear fishing contests were held somewhere in the Keys
>> every year. One could launch a boat at places like the Gulf Stream
>> Club on Garden Cove or other out-of-the-way places with little worry
>> that your car and trailer might be stolen. If you carried your 6-hp
>> outboard in the trunk, as I did, you could rent a wooden skiff for 3
>> dollars a day. There were no dive shops or dive boats. "Aqua lungs"
>> were beginning to appear, but most skin divers could not afford them.
>> The greatest deterrent to Keys diving and fishing was the mosquitoes.
>> Getting from car to safely offshore was painful.
>>      Some roadside shops sold a few conch shells and coral but there
>> were few tourists. Mosquitoes kept them in their cars. The Coast
>> Guard was still dynamiting coral to open a channel for supply boats
>> that supplied the men living on lighthouses. About 5 people manned
>> most lighthouses. Carysfort had telephone communications to shore and
>> the remains of the cable are still in the access channel.
>>      Motels were few and far between, and water barely trickled from
>> showerheads. It came from a 12-inch-diameter pipe that ran from
>> Homestead to Key West. Keys well water was brackish. Lack of water
>> and periodic hurricanes such as Donna in 1960 and Betsy in 1965 kept
>> development in check. The granddaddy of all hurricanes, of course,
>> was the Labor Day Storm of 1935. It wiped out Flagler's railroad,
>> killed more than 400 people, and remained on the minds of many Keys
>> residents. But what about the coral reefs?
>>      In the late 1950s, Dr. Gill Voss (one of my professors at UM)
>> became concerned that the growing numbers of shell and coral
>> collectors were collecting excessive amounts of coral. Few knew how
>> fast corals grew, although the Carnegie Institute laboratory at
>> Loggerhead Key, Dry Tortugas, had determined growth rates in the
>> 1920s and 1930s. Voss published many articles that helped lead to
>> creation of John Pennekamp State Park. The Park was named after
>> Pennekamp because as Editor of the Miami Herald newspaper, he had
>> played a major role in creating Everglades National Park. National
>> Park rules prevented parks from being named after people. Ironically,
>> the main purpose of the State Park was to prevent spear fishing.
>> There had long been a war going on between Conchs (the name for Keys
>> and Key West residents) and charter boat captains, and young spear
>> fishermen from Miami. These young divers, including me, brought
>> little money and competed for the local fish. They were socially very
>> different. One diver I knew was actually murdered by lobster
>> fishermen. No one was prosecuted. Interestingly, very few charter
>> boat operators or lobster fishermen could swim or cared about
>> learning. Fellow fishermen ridiculed them whenever one accidentally
>> fell in the water. They literally looked down on those who donned
>> masks (we called them face plates) and flippers. Hardcore divers
>> scorned snorkels. They were for tourists and the usually had
>> Ping-Pong balls or flaps on the top. So when did the major changes in
>> the Keys begin and why?
>>     Major changes began in the 1970s. First came the 36-inch water
>> pipe to Key West. Motels and other businesses at last had sufficient
>> water. Next came aerial spraying of toxic chemicals to control
>> mosquitoes, and coincidentally butterflies. Additionally, and what I
>> think most important, no hurricanes struck the Keys between 1965 and
>> Andrew in 1992. Fortunately, Andrew missed the heart of the Keys.
>> Burger Kings, McDonalds gas stations and marinas popped up by the
>> later part of the 1970s. The biggest monetary change occurred when
>> the square groupers arrived. Square grouper was the local name for
>> bales of pot. Pot, smuggling, and later cocaine, brought sudden
>> wealth, and almost overnight many lobster fishermen began driving
>> Mercedes and purchased fleets of boats and thousands of traps. Motels
>> and marinas enlarged and property values skyrocketed. Homes,
>> property, and boats were being bought with suitcases of hard cash
>> while beer trucks transported weed northward on US 1. Illegal aliens
>> flooded in, leading to creation of roadblocks on US 1. They were
>> usually right next to the Last Chance Bar and Grill. Inspecting car
>> trunks revealed the true extent of drug smuggling so periodic
>> roadblocks persisted. Roadblocks of course impacted tourism, leading
>> to establishment of the so-called Conch Republic in 1981. Creating
>> the Republic and threatening to secede from the Union was a joke but
>> the term Conch Republic stuck and proudly remains today. To avoid the
>> roadblock, smugglers could telephone the Last Chance Bar and learn if
>> one was in place. Some Keys politicians and public employees could
>> not resist easy money. Some roads to nowhere were constructed. The
>> one on Sugarloaf Key was covered with skid marks where small planes
>> landed to unload. It was a very different place worthy of many Jimmy
>> Buffett songs. A pirate turns 40 became popular.
>>      The exact dates escape me but a Federal court ruling limited the
>> State's offshore jurisdiction to 3 miles on the Atlantic side of the
>> Keys. Pennekamp State Park could no longer protect the best reef
>> areas farther offshore. That change in Federal law provided an
>> opportunity for NOAA's new Sanctuary Program to take over
>> jurisdiction of unprotected offshore waters. By then, the National
>> Marine Sanctuary Program had been created under the Department of
>> Commerce to protect the site of the Civil War ship Monitor.
>> Establishment of that site was followed by a proposal to create the
>> Texas Flower Garden Reef Sanctuary; however, enactment took many
>> years because NOAA was up against Texas politics and the petroleum
>> industry. Sanctuaries were also being proposed in many areas
>> previously selected as potential oil exploration areas. There was
>> much angst within the petroleum industry and on Capitol Hill. But
>> that's another long story.
>>        Meanwhile, the Key Largo Marine Sanctuary was created after
>> much wrangling, and State rangers were deputized to patrol both State
>> and Federal waters. I was on the boat and took photos of the ceremony
>> when John Pennekamp cosigned the official documents. At that time,
>> corals were almost pristine.
>>      After the new water pipe, initiation of mosquito spraying, lack
>> of hurricanes, and the creation of the Sanctuary, the upper Keys
>> became a magnet for out-of-state divers. They came in droves! Dive
>> shops sprang up, as did dive charter boats. The war with line-fishing
>> charter boats was over. Scuba diving became king!
>>       Meanwhile, business leaders in the lower Keys took note and
>> looked longingly at the activity and money lavished on the upper
>> Keys. After some preliminary studies, NOAA next proposed
>> establishment of the Looe Key Sanctuary. Several long and heated
>> public hearings ensued. Most Conch Republic residents because of
>> their independent nature resisted anything associated with the
>> Federal government. Signs everywhere said, "Just Say No To NOAA."
>> Some faded signs still exist. NOAA left but returned again thereafter
>> and held the public hearings in Miami to avoid all the flack. Keys
>> residents still did not want it, but finally the last bill Jimmy
>> Carter signed on the night before he left office created the Looe Key
>> Marine Sanctuary. Soon after, the first manager got busted and was
>> fired for spear fishing at Looe Key.
>>      Keys Conchs know the rest of the story. Sentiment began to
>> change as non-Conchs (they are known as freshwater conchs) moved to
>> the Republic. Population exploded, business flourished, and adult
>> bookstores appeared on every major Key. Sometimes I wonder what the
>> Keys real attraction really is?
>>     On November 16, 1990, a new bill was signed that converted the
>> entire Florida Keys into a National Marine Sanctuary. The final
>> management plan was completed May 1993. It should be noted that the
>> Sanctuary is under the Department of Commerce, which is
>> philosophically and politically distinct from nearby Everglades Park
>> and Biscayne National Park, which are under the Department of
>> Interior. Pennekamp State Park still exists, as does the Looe Key
>> Sanctuary, and there are several other State-owned land areas. In
>> addition, there are Fish and Wildlife-protected areas nestled within
>> the Marine Sanctuary. Fish and Wildlife is also under Department of
>> Interior.
>>        So what has all this activity created? By 1990, there were
>> 30,000 septic tanks, about 10,000 cesspits (septic tanks without
>> bottoms), and dozens of small sewage treatment plants outfitted with
>> a total of 1,000 shallow injection wells to receive treated sewage. A
>> regionalized sewage system is presently under construction, but green
>> lawns flourish thanks to chemical fertilizers and weed killers.
>> Mosquito spraying remains routine and I am told some butterflies are
>> making a comeback. To my knowledge, no significant studies have been
>> conducted to determine the effect of mosquito spraying on coral and
>> the marine ecosystem. I conclude that even hardcore environmentalists
>> draw the line between which organisms live and die. All these changes
>> came rapidly, and one might at this point ask, did creating the
>> Sanctuary to save the reefs have a reverse effect by publicizing and
>> attracting more and more divers, businesses, residents, hotels, and
>> motels, etc., to the Florida Keys? On other hand, did people come
>> because of the unprecedented 27-year-absence of hurricanes? Or, could
>> it have been the sudden abundance of freshwater and lack of
>> mosquitoes? Was it the resultant increase in human sewage and
>> chemicals that contributed to reef demise? Or was it caused by runoff
>> of chemicals from agriculture, so-called "Big Sugar," to the north?
>> Clearly overfishing explains the dwindling fish population, but
>> whether that affected coral growth is controversial. Most Keys
>> citizens have selected a favorite villain and some would like to see
>> a barricade at the entrance to the Keys, or at least a tollgate. I
>> personally maintain that a major factor has been the absence of big
>> hurricanes since 1965. Periodic hurricanes, such as those that
>> occurred repeatedly before 1965, would have greatly changed Keys
>> history and development.
>>      Nowadays, many argue coral demise is due to global warming, or
>> the newest villain, alkalinity shift (a.k.a. ocean acidification),
>> but they forget that major coral mortality began back when leading
>> scientists were predicting global cooling.
>>      As every coral scientist knows, the demise of the coral reefs
>> began in the late 1970s and peaked in 1983 and 1984. Coral bleaching
>> came to Florida later in 1986-87. Coral demise was occurring
>> throughout the Caribbean in the early 1980s, even around islands with
>> few people. The black-spined sea urchin Diadema suffered at least 90
>> percent mortality everywhere in the Caribbean. The urchins literally
>> died off in a period of one year during 1983, about the same year
>> seafan disease appeared. Many acres of elkhorn and staghorn corals
>> died within a few months adjacent to the Finger Lakes Marine
>> Laboratory on remote San Salvador, Bahamas. The rapid die-off that
>> happened in 1983 was well documented by the scientists at the Finger
>> Lakes lab.
>>      In retrospect, 1983 and 1984 were the banner years for African
>> dust transport to the Caribbean as well as Acropora coral demise most
>> everywhere in the Caribbean. I am reminded that the sponge industry
>> suffered a similar Caribbean-wide demise in 1938 and later in the
>> Gulf of Mexico in the late 1940s. The causes of the sponge deaths
>> were not determined, and the events have long been forgotten. So what
>> really caused reef demise and the earlier sponge deaths? Could it be
>> a combination of factors? Many scientists and agencies seem to have
>> their favorite candidates that shift with time. They generally prefer
>> an activity such as anchor damage and boat groundings that can be
>> controlled through fines. Natural biological cycles or the African
>> dust hypothesis are not acceptable villains.
>>      There is much we still don't know, and currently little research
>> is aimed at experimentally determining causes. Finger pointing will
>> likely continue until the coral bounces back and everyone can claim
>> victory. I admit this is a personal rather cynical history not likely
>> found in most publications such as those published by Chambers of
>> Commerce and various agencies. Does any of this history relate to the
>> original question of saving reefs through economic means? Will an
>> economic valuation and market-based conservation approach as proposed
>> for a mini-session at the next ICRS prevent a "tragedy of the
>> commons?" Will these schemes actually save the corals? Who will
>> profit and who will lose? I wonder if the corals will benefit.
>>
>> Gene
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> --
>>
>>
>> No Rocks, No Water, No Ecosystem (EAS)
>> ------------------------------------ -----------------------------------
>> E. A. Shinn, Courtesy Professor
>> University of South Florida
>> Marine Science Center (room 204)
>> 140 Seventh Avenue South
>> St. Petersburg, FL 33701
>> <eshinn at marine.usf.edu>
>> Tel 727 553-1158----------------------------------
>> -----------------------------------
>> _______________________________________________
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>>
>
>
>
>

--
Phillip Dustan  Ph.D.
Department of Biology
College of Charleston
Charleston   SC  29424
(843) 953-8086 voice
(843) 953-5453 (Fax)



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