[Coral-List] Coral Lipids Analysis

Roxanna Myers rockymyers at hotmail.com
Wed Mar 4 23:08:28 EST 2009


Dear Coral-List
My name is Roxanna Myers and I am currently a graduate student at the University of Guam Marine Laboratory.  I'm working on my thesis focusing on coral growth anomalies and want to perform lipids analysis on healthy and diseased areas.  I have already performed one round of lipid extraction using the methods of Stimson 1987 and Harriott 1993.  I am working with massive Porites spp. and have found that I have a lot of salt in my lipid extracts.  I was wondering if anyone had come across this issue, or if anyone had any ideas of how to remedy this (i.e. remove the salts to get an accurate representation of lipid extract).  Also, does anyone know if it is possible to extract lipids from frozen samples?  Thank you for any advice or guidance regarding this issue.  Cheers!
Roxanna L. Myers
Graduate Research Assistant
PO Box 5413
UOG Station
Mangilao, Guam 96923
rockymyers at hotmail.com

(671) 734-4054 (Work)

(671) 787-3759 (Cell)





> From: coral-list-request at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
> Subject: Coral-List Digest, Vol 7, Issue 5
> To: coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
> Date: Wed, 4 Mar 2009 12:00:02 -0500
> 
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> Today's Topics:
> 
>    1. response - measuring sedimentation on reefs. (Martin, Alec)
>    2. Re: Global Warming Theory (Douglas Fenner) (Eugene	Shinn)
>       (George Ducott)
>    3. Florida judge rules to protect Palm Beach County reefs
>       (Etichscuba at aol.com)
>    4. Re: Fish to eat and fish not to eat (Vera Dulaney)
> 
> 
> ----------------------------------------------------------------------
> 
> Message: 1
> Date: Wed, 4 Mar 2009 00:08:34 -0000
> From: "Martin, Alec" <MartinGA at Halcrow.com>
> Subject: [Coral-List] response - measuring sedimentation on reefs.
> To: <coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov>
> Message-ID:
> 	<A87990669172924FADCAABF1721CB6EC06F6BF55 at LOND-MX-01.halcrow.com>
> Content-Type: text/plain;	charset="iso-8859-1"
> 
> Response to measuring sedimentation on reefs.
>  
> Dear Leigh
>  
> A few ideas - by no means exhaustive but might help. 
>  
> In terms of sedimentation/ potential coastal construction impacts you will need to determine what you re trying to establish and why in order to formulate the methodology, and hence chose what to monitor. 
>  
> If you are merely wanting a record of rates of sedimentation/ scour you could use pegs/ stakes at reference locations which will enable you to measure the rate of sediment accumulation or scour at each peg/ stake over time. This is very straightforward but does require dive/ snorkel work. - box traps would achieve much the same. 
>  
> Alternatively you could use a buoyed (on bed/ or mid water) sedimentation measuring device - basically any graduated collector which will enable you to measure the amount of sediment settling in it over unit time and hence allow calculation of sedimentation rates - this will however not account for re-suspension etc, and hence may over calculate settlement in comparison to apparent rates in the sea bed. This method has the advantage of being possible to carry out from a boat without the need for diving etc.
>  
> If you are in fact wanting to actively manage and prevent impacts as opposed to just record them you might need to look at a combination of settlement rates, suspended sediment (TOSS) analysis, and turbidity measurements in real time - or indeed hindcast modelling. Any such activities will however be potentially more expensive, require specialist equipment and analysis - but can provide real time control for example of dredge spill impacts. 
>  
> In any case, it will be necessary to also determine a representative baseline control location(s) in order to provide a comparator site with similar current etc conditions but which is not affected by works - this may be difficult if there are numerous overlapping projects along the coast. 
>  
> The quantification of the 'extent to which a reef is affected' - i.e. the nature of the impact upon the viability of the reef receptors, their levels of stress, or sustainability indices, is however a complex field and it may prove very hard indeed to isolate the potential impacts of sedimentation within an overall complex system of environmental stresses. Data on the actual tolerances of different receptors is also a complex subject and it is a considerable exercise in order to attempt to make firm quantitative assessments of the magnitude of impact of different stressors such as sedimentation. 
>  
> There is however some literature data on what corals for example can and cannot tolerate in terms of accumulation/ unit time which may help as a guide.
>  
> I hope this is of some help, 
>  
> good luck,
>  
> Alec
>  
>  
>  
>  
> Good morning,
> 
> I am trying to find information on best practices/methodologies or useful
> lessons learnt for studies trying to measure sedimentation on reefs.  My
> intention is the utilise the information to formulate an appropriate
> methodology for carrying out an investigation to qualify/quantify the extent
> to which a nearshore reef is affected by a nearby coastal construction
> project.
> 
> Thank you in advance,
> 
> LNW
> leigh.weatherhead at gmail.com <mailto:coral-list%40coral.aoml.noaa.gov?Subject=Re:%20%5BCoral-List%5D%20Measuring%20sedimentation%20on%20reefs&In-Reply-To=%3C831799880902230811v4ee26864y34ddeb98c070cb56%40mail.gmail.com%3E> 
>  
>  
>  
>  
> Alec Martin 
> Principal Environmental Scientist, 
> Technical Leader Environmental Water Quality, Environment 
> Halcrow Group Ltd, Arndale House, Otley Road, LEEDS, LS6 2UL, UK 
> tel: switchboard +44 (0) 113 2208220, mobile: + 44 (0) 7748761588 
> fax: +44 (0) 113 2742924   email: martinga at halcrow.com           www.halcrow.com <http://www.halcrow.com/>  
> _______________________________________________________________________________ 
> Halcrow   Sustaining and improving the quality of people's lives  
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> P Please do not print this e-mail and attachments unless absolutely necessary 
> 
> 
> Visit our website at http://www.halcrow.com
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> 
> ------------------------------
> 
> Message: 2
> Date: Tue, 3 Mar 2009 19:07:54 -0800
> From: George Ducott <jobdoctor1 at cox.net>
> Subject: Re: [Coral-List] Global Warming Theory (Douglas Fenner)
> 	(Eugene	Shinn)
> To: Simon Donner <simon.donner at gmail.com>
> Cc: coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
> Message-ID: <f7075032cf1059cd6e28975ed0d4670c at cox.net>
> Content-Type: text/plain;	charset=WINDOWS-1252;	delsp=yes;
> 	format=flowed
> 
> Please read this.
> 
> George Ducott
> VVAW Member
> 
> re. Warming is real and is here.
> 
> From: Vietnam Veterans Against the War <vvaw at vvaw.org>
> Date: Sun Feb 29, 2004  2:05:13  PM US/Pacific
> To: vvawnet at vvaw.org
> Subject: [vvawnet] The Pentagon tells Bush: climate change will destroy  
> us
> 
> 
> ======================================================================== 
> ====
> 
> Forwarded from networker Dwayne Knox to all on VVAWNET:
> 
> 
> Guardian Unlimited
> -----------------------------------------------------------
> Now the Pentagon tells Bush: climate change will destroy us
> -----------------------------------------------------------
> 
>      * Secret report warns of rioting and nuclear war
>      * Britain will be 'Siberian' in less than 20 years
>      * Threat to the world is greater than terrorism
> 
> Mark Townsend and Paul Harris in New York
> Sunday February 22, 2004
> The Observer
> 
> Climate change over the next 20 years could result in a global
> catastrophe costing millions of lives in wars and natural disasters..
> 
> A secret report, suppressed by US defence chiefs and obtained by The
> Observer, warns that major European cities will be sunk beneath rising
> seas as Britain is plunged into a 'Siberian' climate by 2020. Nuclear
> conflict, mega-droughts, famine and widespread rioting will erupt across
> the world.
> 
> The document predicts that abrupt climate change could bring the planet
> to the edge of anarchy as countries develop a nuclear threat to defend
> and secure dwindling food, water and energy supplies. The threat to
> global stability vastly eclipses that of terrorism, say the few experts
> privy to its contents.
> 
> 'Disruption and conflict will be endemic features of life,' concludes
> the Pentagon analysis. 'Once again, warfare would define human life.'
> 
> The findings will prove humiliating to the Bush administration, which
> has repeatedly denied that climate change even exists. Experts said that
> they will also make unsettling reading for a President who has insisted
> national defence is a priority.
> 
> The report was commissioned by influential Pentagon defence adviser
> Andrew Marshall, who has held considerable sway on US military thinking
> over the past three decades. He was the man behind a sweeping recent
> review aimed at transforming the American military under Defence
> Secretary Donald Rumsfeld.
> 
> Climate change 'should be elevated beyond a scientific debate to a US
> national security concern', say the authors, Peter Schwartz, CIA
> consultant and former head of planning at Royal Dutch/Shell Group, and
> Doug Randall of the California-based Global Business Network.
> 
> An imminent scenario of catastrophic climate change is 'plausible and
> would challenge United States national security in ways that should be
> considered immediately', they conclude. As early as next year widespread
> flooding by a rise in sea levels will create major upheaval for
> millions.
> 
> Last week the Bush administration came under heavy fire from a large
> body of respected scientists who claimed that it cherry-picked science
> to suit its policy agenda and suppressed studies that it did not like.
> Jeremy Symons, a former whistleblower at the Environmental Protection
> Agency (EPA), said that suppression of the report for four months was a
> further example of the White House trying to bury the threat of climate
> change.
> 
> Senior climatologists, however, believe that their verdicts could prove
> the catalyst in forcing Bush to accept climate change as a real and
> happening phenomenon. They also hope it will convince the United States
> to sign up to global treaties to reduce the rate of climatic change.
> 
> A group of eminent UK scientists recently visited the White House to
> voice their fears over global warming, part of an intensifying drive to
> get the US to treat the issue seriously. Sources have told The Observer
> that American officials appeared extremely sensitive about the issue
> when faced with complaints that America's public stance appeared
> increasingly out of touch.
> 
> One even alleged that the White House had written to complain about some
> of the comments attributed to Professor Sir David King, Tony Blair's
> chief scientific adviser, after he branded the President's position on
> the issue as indefensible.
> 
> Among those scientists present at the White House talks were Professor
> John Schellnhuber, former chief environmental adviser to the German
> government and head of the UK's leading group of climate scientists at
> the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research. He said that the
> Pentagon's internal fears should prove the 'tipping point' in persuading
> Bush to accept climatic change.
> 
> Sir John Houghton, former chief executive of the Meteorological Office -
> and the first senior figure to liken the threat of climate change to
> that of terrorism - said: 'If the Pentagon is sending out that sort of
> message, then this is an important document indeed.'
> 
> Bob Watson, chief scientist for the World Bank and former chair of the
> Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, added that the Pentagon's
> dire warnings could no longer be ignored.
> 
> 'Can Bush ignore the Pentagon? It's going be hard to blow off this sort
> of document. Its hugely embarrassing. After all, Bush's single highest
> priority is national defence. The Pentagon is no wacko, liberal group,
> generally speaking it is conservative. If climate change is a threat to
> national security and the economy, then he has to act. There are two
> groups the Bush Administration tend to listen to, the oil lobby and the
> Pentagon,' added Watson.
> 
> 'You've got a President who says global warming is a hoax, and across
> the Potomac river you've got a Pentagon preparing for climate wars. It's
> pretty scary when Bush starts to ignore his own government on this
> issue,' said Rob Gueterbock of Greenpeace.
> 
> Already, according to Randall and Schwartz, the planet is carrying a
> higher population than it can sustain. By 2020 'catastrophic' shortages
> of water and energy supply will become increasingly harder to overcome,
> plunging the planet into war. They warn that 8,200 years ago climatic
> conditions brought widespread crop failure, famine, disease and mass
> migration of populations that could soon be repeated.
> 
> Randall told The Observer that the potential ramifications of rapid
> climate change would create global chaos. 'This is depressing stuff,' he
> said. 'It is a national security threat that is unique because there is
> no enemy to point your guns at and we have no control over the threat.'
> 
> Randall added that it was already possibly too late to prevent a
> disaster happening. 'We don't know exactly where we are in the process.
> It could start tomorrow and we would not know for another five years,'
> he said.
> 
> 'The consequences for some nations of the climate change are
> unbelievable. It seems obvious that cutting the use of fossil fuels
> would be worthwhile.'
> 
> So dramatic are the report's scenarios, Watson said, that they may prove
> vital in the US elections. Democratic frontrunner John Kerry is known to
> accept climate change as a real problem. Scientists disillusioned with
> Bush's stance are threatening to make sure Kerry uses the Pentagon
> report in his campaign.
> 
> The fact that Marshall is behind its scathing findings will aid Kerry's
> cause. Marshall, 82, is a Pentagon legend who heads a secretive
> think-tank dedicated to weighing risks to national security called the
> Office of Net Assessment. Dubbed 'Yoda' by Pentagon insiders who respect
> his vast experience, he is credited with being behind the Department of
> Defence's push on ballistic-missile defence.
> 
> Symons, who left the EPA in protest at political interference, said that
> the suppression of the report was a further instance of the White House
> trying to bury evidence of climate change. 'It is yet another example of
> why this government should stop burying its head in the sand on this
> issue.'
> 
> Symons said the Bush administration's close links to high-powered energy
> and oil companies was vital in understanding why climate change was
> received sceptically in the Oval Office. 'This administration is
> ignoring the evidence in order to placate a handful of large energy and
> oil companies,' he added.
> 
> ? Guardian Newspapers Limited 2004
> 
> 
> <http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/ 
> 0,6903,1153513,00.html>
> 
> 
> ________________________________________________________________________
> 
> 
> *************************************************************
> Copyright material is distributed without profit or
> payment for research and educational purposes only,
> in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. section 107.
> Reference: <http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml>.
> *************************************************************
> 
> 
> -- 
> *************************************************************
> National Office
> Vietnam Veterans Against the War, Inc.
> PO Box 408594
> Chicago, IL 60640 (773) 276-4189
> e-mail: vvaw at vvaw.org
> http://www.vvaw.org
> 
> Fighting for veterans, peace and justice since 1967
> *************************************************************
> 
> 
> On Mar 3, 2009, at 9:25 AM, Simon Donner wrote:
> 
>> An important note on the lists of "scientists" who don't believe in
>> global warming:
>>
>> The goal of the list-makers is ostensibly to show there are more
>> "scientists" who doubt the IPCC consensus than who participate in the
>> IPCC. This misses the point of the IPCC effort entirely. The IPCC was
>> not created to get the views of ~2000 scientists but to have ~2000
>> climate scientists summarize the conclusions of the entire scientific
>> community.
>>
>> I use the following medical analogy to  describe the process in class
>> and in public presentations (this is a quote from a story on
>> worldchanging.com):
>>
>> Let?s say you are worried about your health. Maybe you?ve noticed an
>> elevated body temperature, and it is beginning to affect the way you
>> function.
>>
>> You go to the doctor. The doctor gives you a diagnosis, based on her
>> or his expertise. To be safe, you might get a second opinion. Most of
>> the time, that?s enough.
>>
>> But this diagnosis is a frightening one. And you want to be thorough.
>> So you make a call to the United Nations.
>>
>> The UN assembles a team of a couple thousand of top doctors from
>> around the world, with a range of specialties. The team of doctors
>> does a comprehensive review of all the scientific literature on your
>> condition and charges medical centers around the world to run
>> sophisticated computer models simulating your health. The information
>> is assembled into a massive technical report. A draft report is then
>> made available for any doctor in the world to review. Thousands of
>> people review aspects of the report and provide criticism that is
>> factored into the final draft. The team of doctors then meets with
>> representatives from different countries around the world to produce a
>> summary of the report in less technical language that reflects the
>> most important and statistically significant findings. Five years
>> later, you are given that summary.
>>
>> That is how the IPCC ?Summary for Policymakers? reports are produced.
>>
>> They are the end-point of an exhaustive review of scientific
>> literature by a group of top scientists and a long peer review
>> process. They are not alarmist. The findings contained in the reports
>> actually tend to be quite conservative, because they arise out of a
>> wide body of research and adhere to strict statistical conventions.
>> For example, the projections for sea level rise are lower than in many
>> climate studies because of reported uncertainty in the understanding
>> of ice sheet dynamics.
>>
>>
>> -- 
>> Simon Donner
>> Asst. Professor
>> Dept. of Geography
>> University of British Columbia
>> http://www.simondonner.com
>> _______________________________________________
>> Coral-List mailing list
>> Coral-List at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
>> http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/mailman/listinfo/coral-list
>>
> 
> 
> ------------------------------
> 
> Message: 3
> Date: Wed, 4 Mar 2009 06:17:25 EST
> From: Etichscuba at aol.com
> Subject: [Coral-List] Florida judge rules to protect Palm Beach County
> 	reefs
> To: coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
> Message-ID: <bf5.51d94d2e.36dfbd45 at aol.com>
> Content-Type: text/plain; charset="UTF-8"
> 
>  
> Florida  judge rules to protect Palm Beach County reefs.   
> Palm  Beach, FL ?Administrative Law  Judge Robert E. Meale ruled Monday that 
> the Town of Palm Beach be denied a  dredge and fill permit.  Judge Meale, in a 
> 277 page decision took a firm  stand on reef protection (page 231):  ?Because 
> of the rare confluence of conditions required for its creation,  the Florida 
> Reef Tract cannot be replaced in any timeframe short of geologic  time, so its 
> protection, even from remote risks, must be a matter of exceptional  
> regulatory concern.?  ??the performance of the beach, filled with excessive  fines, 
> poses a potential threat to the offshore reef. Storm-driven plumes of  
> unnatural turbidity can carry these particles from [the fill area] Reach 8 to  the 
> offshore reef, where they may settle on the coral, obviously harming or  killing 
> this critical resource 
> In March of 2008,  Collins & West, P.A. representing the Surfrider 
> Foundation, Snook  Foundation, and three individuals filed suit against the FDEP for 
> approving a  Joint Coastal Permit for the Town of Palm Beach to nourish beaches 
> (Reach 8).   The Town of Palm Beach intervened on behalf of  the DEP, and the 
> City of Lake  Worth and Eastern Surfing Association intervened in  opposition 
> of the project.  The trial lasted three weeks, ending in October  of last year. 
> Collins & West  press release @: http://www.collins-west.com/News.asp 
> See the 277 page  ruling @: 
> _http://www.doah.state.fl.us/ros/2008/08001511.pdf_ (http://www.doah.state.fl.us/ros/2008/08001511.pdf)  
> Ed  Tichenor 
> Palm Beach County Reef  Rescue 
> 561  699-8559 
> _www.reef-rescue.org_ (http://www.reef-rescue.org/) 
> **************Worried about job security? Check out the 5 safest jobs in a 
> recession. 
> (http://jobs.aol.com/gallery/growing-job-industries?ncid=emlcntuscare00000002)
> 
> 
> ------------------------------
> 
> Message: 4
> Date: Wed, 4 Mar 2009 09:58:33 -0500
> From: "Vera Dulaney" <veradulaney at comcast.net>
> Subject: Re: [Coral-List] Fish to eat and fish not to eat
> To: <southern_caribbean at yahoo.com>, <coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov>,
> 	"'Delbeek, Charles'" <cdelbeek at calacademy.org>
> Message-ID: <C4CAF45D51ED459CAEE32EE8F23F257D at DGPKK1C1>
> Content-Type: text/plain;	charset="iso-8859-1"
> 
> I am interested in looking at the booklets you talk about.  In the interest
> of saving everyone some time looking for it, would it be possible to provide
> a direct link to the document on your web site?  
> 
> Thank you very much.
> Vera
> 
> -----Original Message-----
> From: coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
> [mailto:coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.noaa.gov] On Behalf Of
> RainbowWarriorsInternational
> Sent: Tuesday, March 03, 2009 1:47 PM
> To: coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov; Delbeek, Charles
> Subject: Re: [Coral-List] Fish to eat and fish not to eat
> 
> The following have all produced basic or extensive lists of marine produce
> to eat and NOT to eat, based on internal research, FAO and other global
> research data:
> 
> Greenpeace International
> The Ocean Project (www.theoceanproject.org), a Global Network of Marine
> Institutes, NGOs, conservation organizations, aquaria etc.
> Nature Conservancy
> Conservation International
> Friends of the Earth International
> World Wildlife Fund
> Earth Island Institute
> Sierra Club
> 
> All of these can be considered authoritative.
> 
> Milton Ponson, President
> Rainbow Warriors Core Foundation
> (Rainbow Warriors International) Tel. +297 568 5908
> PO Box 1154, Oranjestad 
> Aruba, Dutch Caribbean 
> Email: southern_caribbean at yahoo.com Web Sites:
> http://www.southerncaribbean..org   http://www.rainbowwarriors.net?(Global)
> http://www.projectparadigm.info
> 
> To unite humanity in a global society dedicated to a sustainable way of life
> 
> --- On Mon, 3/2/09, Delbeek, Charles <cdelbeek at calacademy.org> wrote:
> From: Delbeek, Charles <cdelbeek at calacademy.org>
> Subject: Re: [Coral-List] Fish to eat and fish not to eat
> To: coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
> Date: Monday, March 2, 2009, 11:37 AM
> 
> The Waikiki Aquarium in conjunction with the Monterey Bay Aquarium SeaFood
> Watch Program also produced a card for sustainable seafood pertinent to the
> Hawaiian Islands and tropical Pacific back in 2005 I believe.
> 
> J. Charles Delbeek, M.Sc.
> Senior Aquatic Biologist, Steinhart Aquarium
> California Academy of Sciences
> 55 Music Concourse Dr.
> San Francisco CA 94118
> 
> phone (415) 379-5303
> fax (415) 379-5304
> cdelbeek at calacademy.org
> www.calacademy.org
> 
> 
> -----Original Message-----
> From: coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
> [mailto:coral-list-bounces at coral.aoml.noaa.gov] On Behalf Of Medio, David
> Sent: Monday, March 02, 2009 4:19 AM
> To: coral-list at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
> Subject: [Coral-List] Fish to eat and fish not to eat
> 
> All
> 
> FYI the Marine Conservation Society has issued a booklet on 'fish to eat
> and fish not eat' and when that covers North Sea and Mediterranean
> species. They include molluscs and crustaceans too.
> 
> David
> 
> 
> 
> Dr David Medio 
> Associate Director, Environment 
> 
> Chief Marine Scientist
> Halcrow Group Ltd, Arndale Centre, Otley Rd, Headingley, Leeds, LS6 2UL,
> UK 
> tel: switchboard +44 (0)113 2208220, direct line: +44 (0)113 220 8253,
> mobile: +44 (0)773 919 0968 
> fax: +44 (0)113 274 2924   email: mediod at halcrow.com
> www.halcrow.com 
> ________________________________________________________________________
> _______ 
> 
> Halcrow   Sustaining and improving the quality of people's lives  
> ________________________________________________________________________
> ____ __
> P Please do not print this e-mail and attachments unless absolutely
> necessary 
> 
> 
> 
>  
> 
>  
> 
> Visit our website at http://www.halcrow.com
> 
> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
> The contents of this email are confidential, for the sole use 
> of the intended recipient at the email address to which it has
> been addressed and do not give rise to any binding legal 
> obligation upon Halcrow companies unless subsequently confirmed 
> on headed business notepaper sent by fax, letter or as an email 
> attachment. Whilst reasonable care has been taken to avoid virus 
> transmission, no responsibility for viruses is taken and it is 
> your responsibility to carry out such checks as you feel
> appropriate. Emails supplied are as found and there's no 
> guarantee that the messages contained within the body of the 
> email have not been edited after receipt. If you receive this 
> email in error, please contact the sender immediately and delete 
> the message from your system.
> Thank you.
> 
> Halcrow Group Limited. Registered office: Vineyard House, 44 Brook Green
> London, W6 7BY. Registered in England and Wales, Number 3415971.
> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
> -
> 
> 
> _______________________________________________
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> 
> _______________________________________________
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> 
> 
> 
>       
> _______________________________________________
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> http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/mailman/listinfo/coral-list
> 
> 
> 
> ------------------------------
> 
> _______________________________________________
> Coral-List mailing list
> Coral-List at coral.aoml.noaa.gov
> http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/mailman/listinfo/coral-list
> 
> End of Coral-List Digest, Vol 7, Issue 5
> ****************************************

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